Saturday 28 January 2012

Applied Control Theory for Embedded Systems

Applied Control Theory for Embedded Systems
by Dennis L. Feucht

by Tim Wescott, Published by Newnes
ISBN 0-7506-7839-9, paperback, 320 pp, $59.95
 
This book presents control theory that is needed to do embedded systems controllers. It emphasizes the discrete frequency (z) domain, though it contains some s-domain (continuous frequency-domain theory) undersampling. It hits upon the major topics: basic feedback control, properties of linear systems, difference equations, Z transforms, system performance parameters, block-diagram algebra, frequency-domain stability analysis, compensator design, and sampling theory.
 
In addition to these essentials, the author also goes on to present nonlinear systems. Because there are so many kinds of nonlinearities, he presents some of the commonly-occurring ones, such as airplane control-surface speed-squared gain variation, hysteresis, actuator saturation, and stiction. The author’s experience at embedded control is revealed by giving some practical guidelines for solving design problems with these and other nonlinearities.
 
Final chapters also cover necessary topics in the practice of control design: measuring frequency response in actual systems, and handling numerical quantization that occurs in software, including limit cycles. He covers software numerical representation and the implementationof familiar functions numerically, as computer code. Some tools in the form of computer programs and segments of coded algorithms useful in implementing compensator filters are provided. Sample embedded code is given on the enclosed CD along with some analysis software.
 
I recommend this book for those who have already gone through basic continuous and discrete control and sampling theory. Although much of the essential mathematics is presented, it is somewhat rushed. Some derivations are hard to follow and must be worked out by the reader, guided by what is given in the book. For the engineer with some control design experience who wants a fuller grasp of control loops with μCs in them, this book is a supplementary text worth considering. It has enough content to merit its 320 pages, and would be a useful resource to draw from on the control section of the engineer’s library shelf.

Geothermal HVAC: Green Heating and Cooling

Geothermal HVAC: Green Heating and Cooling

by Paul McGoldrick

Geothermal HVAC: Green Heating and Cooling
by Jay Egg and Brian Clark Howard, Published by McGraw-Hill
ISBN 13: 978-0-07-174610-6, hardback, 249 pp, $60.00, October 2010
Jay Egg starts his Introduction in this book with, “I have been passionate about geothermal air-conditioning for 20 years because it is renewable, sustainable, and comfortable.” My experiences with the technology have been a lot less practical than the principal author but my first introduction to geothermal was when I was not even out of elementary school: on a field trip to the Royal Festival Hall on the Waterloo South Bank of the Thames in London; the Hall was built for the 1951 Festival of Britain, and its HVAC system was based on geothermal loops buried under the mud of the river using what was always described as the latent heat of The Thames.
It is therefore good to see, after over fifty years, geothermal turning into mainstream practice backed by government assistance for the cost of the systems and installation.
The first chapter cover the fundamentals of geothermal, explaining the energy sources that are beneath our feet and how the technology is green. The book then goes on to explain the basics between convection, conduction, and radiation with the differences between open- and closed-loop systems as well as an understanding of the usual types of HVAC in operation today. Some early confusion is created in the units of HVAC calculations: but they unfortunately exist in real life as well!
The next three chapters cover some repetitive geothermal heat pump systems, ground loop coupling, and load sharing. Chapter 6 takes us into ‘Efficiency and Load Calculations Simplified’ which is a strange, fairly useless place as, unfortunately, is the next chapter on pricing and the following one on the current levels of incentives, tax credits, and rebates. Chapter 9 goes on with the theme, supposedly covering the understanding of project proposals but not offering nearly enough detail for that to actually happen. Chapter 10 encourages the calculation of your return on ‘investment’ from a geothermal system, rather than simply calling it a matter of how long a period before your expenditure can be recouped compared to another high efficiency system: ROI simply does not apply to expenditure.
The text goes on to chapters encouraging that you verify how your installed system is working and to talk about system longevity, while Chapter 13 is a fun one with some common problems and horror stories described. Chapter 14 rounds off the book with a partial trip around the world with what is happening with the technology in other countries.
An appendix lists some government resources as well as professional, manufacturing, and installation contacts. After the index there then appears what can only be described as five pages of advertising.
The fundamental questions that any publisher needs to ask of a budding author is ‘who is your audience?’ ‘Who will buy your book?’ I am still very unsure of the answers. The coverage is not very technical in the sense of explaining the heat/cooling processes and the illustrations are frustratingly simplistic. The book does, however, convey a passion for geothermal and enough warnings about the kind of mistakes and blind alleys that might be taken that a consumer should be awake to the questions to be asked, of whom, and the care to be taken in listening to the answers.
The index is annoyingly inaccurate by one page number on a consistent basis: a very amateur error for a major publishing house. Mr Egg also makes his church a central part in some of his stories – great for an introduction so that we can understand the author and his positions on life, not so cool for the body of a textbook.
The co-author of the book, Brian Clark Howard, is a well-known technology journalist who is currently the web editor of the Hearst Digital Media title The Daily Green (one of the advertisers appearing post-index) and his imprint can be found throughout the text, emphasizing the environmental aspects of the technology.
Nevertheless, despite all my misgivings, this is a textbook that I read virtually cover-to-cover: not at all something that I can usually say in a publishing world where often just one or two chapters are enough to spark my interest in a book.

How Americans Can Solve the Energy Crisis in Ten Years

Energy, Convenient Solutions: How Americans Can Solve the Energy Crisis in Ten Years

by Paul McGoldrick

Energy, Convenient Solutions: How Americans Can Solve the Energy Crisis in Ten Years
by Howard Johnson, Published by Senesis Word
ISBN 13: 978-0-982-91140-2, softcover, 259 pp, $16.95, August 2010

It is not often that I am confused by a book before I even open it. The details above are accurate, but the book, with the same title, front cover, and author, is also listed as ISBN 13: 978-1-425-78922-0, published by Xlibris Corporation in January 2011 with a list price of $19.99 and a massive increase of pages to 380. Which is accurate? Well, the Senesis version is certainly the one that I have in front of me… and both publishers appear to be self-publishing operations.
The author of this book is a degreed (BS) chemical engineer from Purdue University (1949) who was brought up in the Midwest and worked in a family dentistry business, consulted for NASA and the US military, and retired in 2000 to write full time. His first novel Blue Shift was published by Winepress, a custom (vanity) Christian publisher.
Energy, Convenient Solutions aims to be a text that explains the origins and liabilities of fossil fuels and how they can be replaced with alternate sources. Nothing novel about that, of course, but there is a lot of repetition in what comes across as a series of essays that don’t really have that essential beginning, middle, and end logic that we are all supposed to write to. There are also rants that are disturbing coming from an engineer: “Hatred of Big Oil promulgated by leftist politicians and the media…similarly imaginary factors add to the price and subtract from the available supply of petroleum, in addition to the real problems of diminishing oil reserves.” This kind of outburst makes you question whether there is not some other agenda than alternative energy solutions. The Christian aspect is also, unfortunately, a theme in this energy text. I don’t have any problem, for example, with someone ‘damning the liberals’ as long as it is supported by fact and/or history, not mere ideology.
Johnson explains existing energy systems but each direction seems to end up going off at a tangent that doesn’t belong. I particularly get a jarring feeling when the hydrogen fuel cell is dissed multiple times in the text with no real scientific facts; or the continuation of the factually-lacking accusations of East Anglia scientists ‘cooking’ results in global climate change; or the arguments that global climate change (he insists in using the politically unsavory ‘global warming’ tag that almost always seems to be a right wing excuse) is actually good for us: “It is obvious that in the bigger picture and over the longer-range [sic], global warming would be quite advantageous for life on earth, even humans…Burn that oil. Burn that coal. Pump out that carbon dioxide!”
And how can any scientist or engineer write, “After realizing these facts, maybe Al Gore will write a new book titled, A Beautiful Truth that will tell the facts about global warming. Oh, but that just wouldn’t work with his liberal agenda, would it? The new American liberal politics trumps [sic] facts, science, and all other forms of truth. Shades of the old Soviet Union. This is especially true of all information showing the benefits [sic] of increased carbon dioxide and of global warming, whether related or not. Certainly, the degree of their relationship has not been established by anything other than anecdotal evidence.” This renders one quite speechless.
For a book that is intended to express scientific opinion the absence of any illustrations of any kind is not a positive; nor, to my mind, as readers are already well aware, is the use of incorrect scientific notations and units – oh, and no references of note. Even the comparisons made between conventional and electric vehicles completely ignore the complete energy chain in their production, use, and ultimate disposal.
On the Christian direction of the text (and how unchristian so many Christians in the United States seem to be in their opinions of others) the author goes into a lengthy diatribe about Islam, “Muslim beheadings [that is, presumably, beheadings by Muslims rather than of Muslims] and terrorism are nothing new. These emotionally driven fanatics have been committing these atrocities on any who would not convert to their faith since they first came on the scene in the seventh century…They are the ones who will eventually rule the world…Make no mistake. Their long-range plan is for your grandchildren to be taught only from the Koran under threat of the scimitar. That is if they manages [sic] to live through the takeover.” Who wants grandchildren now?
This book is inconsistent and quite disagreeable in many places. Yet there are points that should be taken seriously and a skilled editor with considerable goodwill from the author – which may well not be available – could turn the text into a practical, interesting, thought provoking dissertation of possibly one hundred pages.
I wouldn’t necessarily go out of my way to buy this book and I wouldn’t recommend my readers to do so either, but if you needed an add-on to get you into free shipping for another Amazon order, or a doorstop, you might opt for it. The $16.95 version, of course.

ANALOG Circuit Design: A Tutorial Guide to Applications and Solutions

ANALOG Circuit Design: A Tutorial Guide to Applications and Solutions

by Paul McGoldrick

ANALOG Circuit Design: A Tutorial Guide to Applications and Solutions
edited by Bob Dobkin and Jim Williams, Published by Newnes
ISBN 13: 978-0-12-385185-7, hardcover, 932 pp, $84.95, August 2011


This text has been published shortly after the death of Jim Williams and it is admirable that the publishers managed to get an extra page inserted in the bindery dedicated thus: "In memory of Jim Williams, a poet who wrote in electronics.” Very fitting.
This book is not a rewrite of the earlier text edited by Williams, also entitled Analog Circuit Design, published in July 1991 (ISBN 13: 978-0-75-069640-1) and subtitled Art, Science and Personalities. That was a series of essays by over twenty analog designers which was fascinating and historical, but not really a useful design textbook. This new book is different. It is a compendium of a large number of previously published Linear Technology application notes that have been selected by Dobkin (CTO and Founder at Linear) and Williams for their long-term usefulness in the industry. And they have selected well for that purpose. The page notations indicate that the book was going to be entitled Analog Circuit and System Design, which might have been more fitting.
What value, I am sure will be asked, is there in publishing these application notes in textbook form when they are all available on line? They are all in one place, for one thing, and they have been put in a sectional order of like relevance. Each section includes, with one exception, multiple application notes that are designated as chapters. Two groups of sections make up Parts 1 and 2: “Power Management” and “Data Conversion, Signal Conditioning and High Frequency/RF.” The latter has three sections with similar titles while the former has section titles of, “Power Management Tutorials,” Switching Regulator Design,” Linear Regulator Design,” High Voltage and High Current Applications,” “Powering Lasers and Illumination Devices,” and “Automotive and Industrial Power Design.”
Some application notes (chapters) are obviously of more value than others in a generic sense, but when you are looking at a particular problem in a design every one has merit of some kind or another. It is particularly gratifying to see Application Note 47, “High Speed Amplifier Techniques” in print for the first time in its entirety; it is, arguably, one of the best application aids that has ever been produced in our industry. The negative is that it is showing its twenty year age in many respects because of the development of faster monolithic amplifiers, and there are a lot of additional problems and diagnoses that are equally relevant today to the designer.
The same is at least partially true in a number of other cases, but the overall relevance of the notes is unquestionable and we are not about to pick them apart one-by-one in this review.
What is unfortunate is that the reproduction quality of some of the photographs seems to have suffered somewhat in the book compared to the online PDFs, perhaps most so in the referenced “High Speed Amplifier Techniques.” And it is a little sad that Linear/Elsevier did not employ a professional editor to correct all the non-approved abbreviations and unit spacings that have become the norm in the company’s written output.
Nevertheless, this is a handsome book that I will happily find space for on my shelf. It is extremely good value for money and is, thank heavens, a prime example of why it will be some time before e-books have a real place in the publication of technology texts. There should be a place for this latest ANALOG Circuit Design in the hands of every novice, journeyman, and experienced analog designer.

Starting Electronics (Fourth Edition)

Starting Electronics (Fourth Edition)

by Paul McGoldrick

Starting Electronics (Fourth Edition)
by Keith Brindley, Published by Newnes (Elsevier)
ISBN 13: 978-0-080-96992-3, softcover, 284 pp, $31.95, September 2011


Getting a basic handle on electronics is not the easiest of tasks. Students who come to it through college courses get bogged down with theory which is pretty irrelevant when it comes to simple circuits, and the number of magazines that offer the beginner a leg up in practical work have become rather few and far between. The days of being able to get practical experience through radio amateur work have become less easy as well, because the majority of equipment in use comes neatly packaged with made-in-Japan labels.
Brindley has written and taught basic electronics for some time. This book, now in its fourth edition, has been updated and expanded to try and meet the needs of the newest adventurers on the block. How has he done?
The author is British and has tried to capture a North American audience by using spelling like ‘analog’ instead of his native ‘analogue’ and by converting the prices of some of the tools he suggests into USD. But the appendix with a list of UK component suppliers kinds of negates those timid efforts.
The first chapter offers some advice on basic tools and an explanation of electron flow – quite nicely done – leading to Ohm’s Law. He then gets into the first practical work. The book uses breadboard techniques where a circuit is being constructed with suggested component layouts for those circuits. He starts with some resistors, a battery, and a multimeter used to measure combined series and parallel resistance (explaining, thank heavens, about zeroing the meter).
The next chapter moves on to capacitors and time constants before moving into building an astable multivibrator using a 555 and an LED, and a very basic explanation of filters. Next are two chapters on diode behavior and characteristics leading into rectifier circuits and smoothing.
Transistors are next (using, for some obscure reason, a 2N3053) and there is a reasonable explanation of npn action without delving into chemistry. The pnp device is mentioned and a circuit symbol is given but no practical work is done with one. The 2N3053 is used, however, to show a small base current controlling a larger collector current flowing through a LED.
A further chapter moves on to ‘Analog Integrated Circuits’ and uses a 741 as a demonstrator. Dave Fullagar (designer of the µA741 when he was at Fairchild) would be the first to admit that it is probably not the best op amp to start your design life with, but here Brindley (who mistakenly thinks the 741 is the “most commonly used IC of all time” – it is actually the 555) uses it only in dc conditions.
We then move to digital ICs, by which he means logic devices, which he spends two chapters on with logic explanations and a lot of pages on 7400 and 4000 series examples.
The book is completed with fifty pages – yes, fifty! – on soldering and a fairly incomplete glossary.
Brindley’s writing is folksy and he has quizzes at the end of each chapter (with answers, but no explanations, at the rear of the book). The basics are covered but there is a lack of ‘fun’ in the practical work because there is nothing really useful that is built. Where is the audio circuit that could get that 2N3053 doing something real? After all there are many safe sources of audio signal available these days from portable players and phones. Why not add some RF circuitry to the audio stage and get a TRF receiver going?
We’re not suggesting that the majority of readers of EN-Genius are likely to find this text useful in their daily work, but there are undoubtedly questions asked of you by others to suggest a way that young Tommy or Maria can get into electronics. This book won’t help you get through any academic exams but it isn’t intended to.
Let’s not leave it another seven years for the next edition, Newnes. But next time let’s put some more fun into starting out in the wonderful world of electronics.

Everything You Should Have Learned in School…but Probably Didn’t

Electrical Engineering 101 (Third Edition): Everything You Should Have Learned in School…but Probably Didn’t

by Paul McGoldrick

Electrical Engineering 101 (Third Edition): Everything You Should Have Learned in School… but Probably Didn’t
by Darren Ashby, Published by Newnes (Elsevier)
ISBN 13: 978-0-12-386001-9, paperback, 291 pp, $34.95, September 2011


Darren Ashby is the Electronics Product Line Manager at Icon Health & Fitness (Logan, UT), manufacturers and purveyors of fitness machines such as the NordicTrack; he was also one of our EExperts (together with Robert Ashby) at ChipCenter (the massive content of which – and our previous incarnation as EDTN – has totally disappeared under UBM Electronics management) which was the home of my AnalogAvenue. He regards himself as an EE who has become a “pointy haired” boss and looks to his text as a way of giving the reader an “intuitive understanding and the tools to take their electronics education to the next level.” The Third Edition expands considerably over the previous work.
In Chapter 0 (smacks of digital) Ashby seeks to explain what electricity is all about, looking at atoms and electrons, conductors and insulators. He also gives a fairly complicated analogy of energy to work.
Chapter 1 opens with a lesson after my own heart: the importance of units! You can solve any piece of mathematics, but unless the units track to your working you have solved nothing. Going on there is a comparison of electrical components to physical equivalents, such as resistors to friction, inductors to mass, and capacitors to springs. Ashby also introduces a concept he calls intuitive signal analysis which is his way of describing how he looks at a circuit and breaks it down into manageable chunks. That works fine with the majority of progressive circuits but as soon as you incorporate feedback, clamping, and even the self-start circuits you will find in power supplies it becomes too much of a guessing game for such analysis. Ashby puts forward six fundamental equations, which he then details in Chapter 2, Basic Theory: Ohm’s Law, voltage divider rule (still Ohm’s Law, Darren), capacitors impede changes in voltage, inductors impede changes in current, series and parallel resistors (Ohm’s Law, again), and Thevenin’s (sic) theorem. The latter, as he correctly points out, could be replaced with Norton which, as a current model, is much easier for virtually all semiconductor models in ICs, etc when voltage sources can rarely be deemed as ‘clean’ of any impedance considerations.
Chapter 2 also covers capacitors and resistors in series and parallel as well as ac generation, reactances, and the essences of low-pass and high-pass filters. An explanation of magnetic fields is a little confusing as he suggests that current can flow in an incomplete circuit but charges are well covered in capacitive electric fields. Ashby then invites into an understanding of transfer functions including a ‘metric converter’ of Km (sic) to mile and Ohm’s Law which are neat segues into feedback and gain loops.
Partially Conducting Electricity is the subtitle of Chapter 3 (Pieces Parts) with a jump into semiconductors and simple explanations of N (sic) and P (sic) doping. With the characteristics of a diode graphed the author misses the major point of telling the reader which way current conducts – that is which is forward and which is reverse – in the p-n device. We also have a current “flow across” moment in the diode and a couple of “current applied” moments in the extension of two diodes to a transistor’s physical arrangement. He then explains the transistor – both pnp and npn – used as a switch and gets into linear amplifiers, albeit to excuse himself because “setting up linear amplifiers can be a bit of a trick” and that op amp use is better! HFE (sic) variations? Really? Continuing on with FETs Ashby almost offers them as a form of super BJT… A paragraph on PCBs is followed by a “list” of additional parts, which is actually a brief descriptor of a Darlington (no symbol, although it is alluded to), an SCR (part of “the thyristor family” but with no explanation), a Triac, and an IGBT.
Chapter 3 continues into power and heat management issues with device temperatures, heat sinking and the like. There is then a massive jump into The Magical Mysterious Op-Amp which Ashby approaches with a repeated reminder that the inputs to an op amp are high impedance. He treats the device as a summing block with both a ve and a –ve input plus a gain element. That’s fine. He also points out, quite correctly, that the massive open-loop gain does not produce huge voltage swings – because of the limitation of the voltage rail(s) – but doesn’t emphasize how close to the rails the output can get, and why.
Negative feedback is introduced as well in this Chapter with the usual op amp equations and he also briefly looks at positive feedback while only mentioning oscillators. Ashby then spends time on binary numbers and gets into logic gates and truth tables before considerable pages on microprocessor basics, I/Os, and a bunch of oddball stuff allegedly related to µPs: phototransistors, Hall devices, digital encoders, potentiometers (and ratiometers, without using the word), sensors, grounding, LEDs, multiplexing, and incandescent lamps. All are basic – too basic – and digital pots are obvious by their absence.
After sixty-four pages, nearly one-quarter of the book, Chapter 3 comes to an end!
Chapter 4 is entitled The Real World which argues for the analog and digital worlds, without once pointing out that digital is just a special case of analog… The author uses a comparator model as an example of an ADC and then a low-pass filter as an example of a PWM DAC. I dislike this approach, which will only confuse the beginner. I would much prefer to see a conventional amplitude/sampling analysis of the creation of a digital counterpart and then a straightforward voltage resistive ladder, the model of 90% of practical circuits, as the DAC.
The Chapter continues with a look at parts that are imperfect: capacitors, resistors, semiconductors, and voltage sources (Ohm’s Law would have been a good place for that one). There is then a Robust Design section, which is management theoretical rather than engineering practical, and Some of My Favorite Circuits, which are all rather trivial. These are followed by a section of just six pages on power supplies. There are a myriad of expressions here that grate but among them are the use of “signal” to describe a dc voltage, “center tap bridge rectifier” to describe a half-wave arrangement, and using a filter capacitor to make the output less “bumpy” rather than describing the filtering of the ac component. Linear regulators are treated as just blocks but switching regulators are given a good description, albeit without some nice current drawingsto follow along with. Ashby then follows with about eighteen useful, but not terribly practical, pages on dc and ac motors.
Chapter 5 is entitled Tools and spends about the same number of pages on soldering as it does, in total, on test meters, oscilloscopes, logic analyzers, and simulators. The Chapter then continues with People Tools, which is actually a primer on the sales channels for components.
Chapter 6 is Troubleshooting, which consists of essays on component problems, EMI, and bugs in code. Generic but readable.
Touchy-Feely Stuff is the matter of Chapter 7 and consists of further essays on management, employees, interviewing techniques, and the like. Is it relevant to the text? Why not, I suppose. A very incomplete glossary and an index round out the book.
Electrical Engineering 101 is not really about electrical engineering at all. It is about electronics. Is it the best it could be? Absolutely not; there are huge improvements that could be made that would turn the book into a much more solid and useful text: Newnes should have been on top of that editorially before it reached the Third Edition.
I like the Thumb Rules scattered in each section, although some of them are a little too folksy. Ashby also shows an overfondness for understanding the charging characteristic of a capacitor, something he raises multiple times. There is a screaming need in the book to get the balance better and to delve into some real circuits. And, of course, the idea that discrete transistors should be avoided at all costs when op amps are available could drive any sane analog designer screaming mad!
There are many who would find this book to be a useful primer in many ways; there are others who would find it very confusing. It deserves a buying audience but I look forward to a Fourth Edition that is more carefully structured and balanced for the putative designer.

Automotive-qualified 32-bit AVR MCU Family for Motor Control Applications

Atmel Releases Automotive-qualified 32-bit AVR MCU Family for Motor Control Applications

Dual CAN Controller Combined with High-Speed PWM, ADC, DAC and Analog Comparator Channels Suited for Real-Time, Intensive Motor Control Applications
Embedded World 2011, Nuremberg, Germany, March 2, 2011 - Atmel® Corporation (NASDAQ: ATML), a leader in microcontroller and touch solutions, today announced the release of the Atmel UC3C AT32UC3C0512C AVR® microcontroller with 512KB of embedded flash memory. As a committed supplier to the automotive industry, Atmel continues to bring new automotive-qualified microcontroller (MCU) solutions to market. This device is the first member of a 32-bit AVR MCU family dedicated to motor control applications such as HVAC, power window, power doors and power seats, featuring PWM controller and analog functions on-chip for direct motor control, as well as automotive interface on-chip (CAN, LIN) for in-car communication. The new Atmel AVR UC3C family will also be available as true 5V devices up to 125°C.
Atmel UC3C automotive-qualified MCUs offer all the necessary features required for even the toughest motor control applications. For instance, in sensorless brushless DC motors (BLDCs), the UC3C family efficiently controls the motor by incorporating a fast 4-channel PWM controller with a 20-bit precision, dead-time generation and fault protection, a 16-channel, 12-bit pipelined analog-to-digital converter (ADC), a 4-channel 12-bit digital-to-analog converter (DAC), an embedded temperature sensor as well as four analog comparators for back-electromagnetic force (EMF) sensing.
Other features of the new UC3C family include an independent peripheral event system coupled with DMA channels to allow inter-peripheral communication without CPU intervention and to eliminate potential jitter. This guarantees a two-cycle latency between the completion of one peripheral operation and the start of another. The family also includes powerful algorithms, such as field oriented control (park and clack transformations), and includes an IEEE 754-1985-compatible floating point unit (FPU), which increases the performance, precision and dynamic range of calculations. The use of the FPU enhances signal processing, filtering and noise suppression.
With a dual CAN interface, five LIN2.1-compliant independent universal synchronous/asynchronous receiver/transmitters (USART), and five I2C-compatible two wire interfaces (TWI), the UC3 family is perfectly equipped to communicate via standard in-car networks.
"We adapted our embedded software to support the UC3C," said Holger Soehnle, product manager for Embedded Software at Vector Informatik GmbH. "Already available are two operating systems: the OSEK-conformant osCAN and the AUTOSAR-conformant MICROSAR OS. Furthermore, CANbedded communication software for CAN and LIN is available—as well as a Flash Bootloader—since this is required in most modern automotive applications. Our embedded software is preferred by a large number of automotive OEMs."
"One of the critical requirements for using embedded processors in the automotive market is the availability of effective and well-supported communication software. The high-quality product portfolio of Vector's CAN and LIN stacks make this company an ideal partner for Atmel's 32-bit automotive microcontroller product line," said Stephan Thaler, MCU marketing manager, Atmel Automotive Business Unit.
The UC3C family also embeds a time division multiplexed inter-IC sound controller (I2S), an Ethernet MAC 10/100Mps interface and a USB 2.0 interface. With an embedded flash vault code protection—a flash security technology that allows the on-chip flash to be partially programmed and locked—the device offers a secure on-chip storage for secret code and software intellectual property. These features also allow the device to carry valuable software from a trusted location to another location where the rest of the source code can be developed, debugged and programmed.
The new UC3C series has up to 512KB embedded flash, with 10,000 write cycles and 15-year data retention. It is possible to lock selected regions of the flash to secure the embedded software. The UC3C also has up to 64KB of embedded SRAM. The devices are designed for 3.0 – 5.5V operation with a true 5V operation, qualified as automotive-grade 1 products supporting a temperature range from -40°C to +125°C

dsp/mcuZONE Products

dsp/mcuZONE Products for the week of April 11, 2011

Texas Instruments Says…
MSP430 microcontroller portfolio expands to offer industry’s first programmable metrology devices for low-cost analog front end solutions
Series allows increased functionality, flexibility and high-precision measurement in metering applications

Focusing on metering and Smart Grid applications, Texas Instruments Incorporated has announced the MSP430AFE2xx series of metrology analog front end (AFE) ultra-low-power 16-bit microcontrollers. Part of TI's leading embedded processing portfolio, the low-cost MSP430AFE series offers the industry’s first programmable single-phase metrology devices supported with multiple communication interfaces. The microcontrollers enable system partitioning in metering applications, such as electricity meters, home automation, sub-metering and energy saving systems, which allows flexible, stand-alone, high-quality measurement. The MSP430AFE series is based on a 16-bit RISC architecture with a system frequency of 12MHz, offering 3X the system speed over competing parts to drive increased functionality. The microcontroller achieves less than 0.1 percent error in energy accuracy over a wide dynamic range of 2400:1, enabled by three independent 24-bit sigma-delta converters supporting anti-tamper.
The MSP430AFE2xx series is also supported by multiple tools, demos and EVMs to provide several options for developers to begin evaluation and move quickly to production. Allowing users to manage energy usage and begin saving money, the RF-capable MSP430 Energy Watchdog demo displays the electricity consumption of any plug-in appliance on an LCD display. The programmable MSP430AFE EVM can be used to test the new MSP430AFE2xx as a calibrated electricity meter. Additionally, the MSP-TS430PW24 target board and MSP-FET430U24 flash emulation tool can be used to program and debug the MSP430AFE devices.
Key features and benefits of the MSP430AFE2xx Series:
  • Single-phase metrology analog front end supporting class 0.1percent accuracy over a 2400:1 dynamic range
  • Three 24-bit sigma-delta analog-to-digital converters (ADCs) with simultaneous sampling for single-phase measurement and anti-tampering, and a small 24-pin TSSOP package for optimal space saving
  • Programmable MSP430AFE devices offer flexibility in system design and performance
  • Comprehensive TI libraries for measuring energy, power, voltage, current and several other key metering criteria provide quick and robust single-phase metrology implementation
  • Up to 16KB Flash and 512B RAM provides design flexibility with programmable memory via SPI and UART interfaces
  • Integrated peripherals, including 16-bit timer, watchdog and hardware multiplier allow for customer controlled tasks and math intensive computations in ultra-low power modes

EN-Genius Says…
TI’s latest addition to their versatile MSP430 MCU family is another example of their talent for producing application-specific solutions that have both the functionality and pricing to help designers quickly address emerging market opportunities. In this case, they have added an extremely precise analog front end to a Flash memory-equipped version their basic MCU platform. This combination of programmability and high accuracy makes it a natural for smart meter/smart grid applications as well as the first generation of energy-aware consumer goods that TI expects to emerge over the next few years.
Although the TMS320 RISC core probably has enough processing horsepower to support many of the other functions associated with Smart meters, TI has positioned these MCU-driven devices as so-called dumb metrology front ends that are paired with another MSP430 that serves as a management processor which takes care of the housekeeping an display drive functions as well as serve as an interface to the Smart Meter’s host processor. Besides ensuring that conflicting software demands do not compromise the precision of its measurements, a segmented approach allows the MSP430AFE2xx series to be used as part of a cost-effective 2-chip solution that can be tweaked to comply with various national meter design regulations. China, for example, ensures the accuracy of its meters by requiring that all products be built according to a standardized smart meter architecture with a stand-alone metrology chip.
The MSP430AFE2xx series combines a Flash-programmable 430 RISC core with a sophisticated analog front-end that consists of three independent 24-bit sigma-delta ADCs (running at 1048 Msample/s) sitting behind a set of precision PGAs. This is a big step up from the 16-bit converters offered on previous 430 variants, a step which may live up to TI’s claims that it is an industry-first in this market segment (I cannot recall another sub-$1 MCU that offered a true 24-bit ADC capability). Instead of the multiplexed scheme used in many 12- and 16-bit products, TI eliminated the associated noise and non-linearities they can introduce by providing separate ADCs for amplitude and current measurements.
If TI is actually making proper use of those extra 8 bits, it should indeed allow them to deliver a sub-0.1% error in energy accuracy rate across a very wide dynamic range. While some 16-bit parts are able to deliver nearly this level of accuracy across a narrow sweet spot, they cannot touch TI’s claimed range of 2400:1 that allows it to deliver accurate phase data even at extremely high and low current levels. A range of 0.1% is roughly double of competing parts. Software developers will appreciate the synchronized ADC sampling logic that lets the MCU (or its associated timers) simultaneously trigger all three converters at the same time, enabling perfectly-synched snapshots of line current and voltage with no software compensation required. The extremely accurate phase measurements this part is capable of producing will become increasingly important in smart power systems which, among other things, will allow utilities to remotely monitor line conditions: which provide important clues on the health and status of their distribution network.
The AFE’s third ADC can be used for other measurements, including tamper-detect functions which monitor the neutral line for the spikes that occur when a would-be power thief messes with the hot or ground leads. Although anti-tamper features are most popular in India and Asia these days I expect they will begin to appear in the next-generation of North American and European markets. Each of the ADCs also has a selectable temperature sense function. Normally, the converters use an on-chip thermistor but TI says there are provisions for using an external sense element. When used in a smart meter, these capabilities may come in handy as a way to allow a utility to remotely monitor the meter’s actual operating conditions and the ambient temperature at each customer location.
Besides its place in the obvious smart meter products, TI expects the MSP430AFE2xx series to find applications in so-called sub-metering functions in which allow consumer electronics, appliances, PV arrays, and other energy-intensive products to monitor and report their own power consumption. The accuracy these MCUs provide will likely also find a warm welcome in higher-powered 3-phase meters and multi-phase industrial power monitoring applications. At the moment, these designs will require multiple chips to implement but TI has quietly hinted that we can expect to see a similar part with more ADC channels at some point during the next year or so.
Whatever product you choose to develop, your task will be made easier by the collection of application-oriented development platforms and the library of software tools and smart meter-oriented application code that TI has rolled out along with these MCUs. For details, check out our review of the development resources for this MCU in greenpowerZONE.

Ten Points To Consider When Purchasing Your Next Oscilloscope

Ten Points To Consider When Purchasing Your Next Oscilloscope
by Robert Lashlee, Learning Products Engineer, Agilent Technologies


You need to choose an oscilloscope that enables you to complete your work in an efficient and
accurate manner. However, selecting such a scope can be a daunting task.

Comparing the specifications and features of oscilloscopes made by different manufacturers is
often time-consuming and confusing. Here are ten concepts that can speed the selection process and
help you avoid some common pitfalls.


Point One: Bandwidth

Bandwidth is the single most important property of an oscilloscope. It determines the range of
signals that can be displayed. It also dictates, to a large extent, the price of the oscilloscope.

To ensure an oscilloscope has enough bandwidth, take into account the bandwidths of the signals
you expect to display with it. The system clock is usually the highest-frequency signal the scope is
likely to display. As such, your oscilloscope should have a bandwidth at least three times greater
than your clock frequency, in order to obtain a reasonable display of the waveform.

Another characteristic that dictates bandwidth needs is signal rise times. Since it's likely you'll be
displaying more than pure sine waves, your signals will contain harmonics at frequencies beyond
the fundamental. If you don't ensure proper oscilloscope bandwidth, rounded edges will be
displayed, instead of the clean fast edges you're expecting. This, in turn, will affect the accuracy of
your measurements.

Fortunately, there are three very simple equations that will help in determining the proper
oscilloscope bandwidth, given your signal characteristics (see Fig. 1).



Fig. 1. Three Key Equations To Figure Out Your Required Bandwidth Needs
It's important to project into the future when determining your bandwidth needs, as that will
probably change over the lifetime of the oscilloscope. Agilent Technologies Infiniium Series
oscilloscopes, for example, mitigate this problem by letting you upgrade to various bandwidths as
your needs change.


Point Two: Number Of Channels

It's important to analyze your work to accurately predict the number of channels that will be
required. Digital content is everywhere in modern designs and conventional 2-channel and 4-channel oscilloscopes don't always provide the required number of channels.

For today's digital world, a new breed of oscilloscope enhances use in digital and embedded debug
applications. These mixed-signal oscilloscopes tightly interleave an additional sixteen logic timing
channels with the two or four channels of a traditional oscilloscope. The result is a fully functional
oscilloscope with up to twenty channels of time-correlated triggering, acquisition, and viewing.


Point Three: Sample Rate

It's important to note that most oscilloscopes can increase sample rate by incorporating a form of
interleaving. This is accomplished when two or more channels couple their ADCs to provide a
maximized sample rate on only one or two channels of a 4-channel oscilloscope. Keep in mind that
the banner specification of the oscilloscope will usually emphasize this maximized sample rate: it
will not state that the sample rate applies to only one channel.

From Equation 3 (see Fig. 1, again) the sample rate of an oscilloscope should be, at a minimum,
four times greater than its bandwidth. For a 12-GHz oscilloscope, the minimum per-channel sample
rate to support the full bandwidth on each channel equals 4 x 12 GHz, or 48 Gsample/s/channel.

A 12-GHz oscilloscope maker may advertise a maximum 64-Gsample/s sampling rate, but fail to
point out that that sampling rate is applicable on one channel only. The per-channel sample rate of
this oscilloscope, when using either three or four channels, would be insufficient to support the
12-GHz bandwidth on more than a couple of channels.

So, make sure the oscilloscope you consider has enough sample rate per channel for every channel
that may be used simultaneously.


Point Four: Memory Depth

In an oscilloscope, an ADC digitizes the input waveform. The resulting data is stored into high-speed memory. An important selection factor is to understand how the oscilloscope uses this stored
information.

Many engineers assume an oscilloscope's maximum sampling rate spec applies to all timebase
settings. In actuality, the memory depth is limited and, therefore, all oscilloscopes must reduce their
sampling speed as the timebase is set to wider ranges.

The deeper the oscilloscope's memory, the more time can be captured at full sampling speed. You
need to check the oscilloscope you're considering to see how its sampling speed is affected by the
timebase setting.

The required memory depth you need is dependent on the amount of time you want displayed, as
well as the sample rate you want to maintain. If you're interested in looking at longer periods of
time with high resolution between points, you need deep memory. A simple equation can tell you
how much memory you'll need, given time span and sample rate (see Fig. 2).



Fig. 2: An Equation Relating Memory Depth To Sample Rate

Once you've determined your memory depth, it's equally important to see how the scope operates
when using the deepest memory setting. Oscilloscopes often respond sluggishly, which can
negatively impact productivity. Before you purchase an oscilloscope, make sure to evaluate its
responsiveness in its deepest memory setting.


Point Five: Update Rate

One major factor in the quality of an oscilloscope display is its update rate. Update rate refers to the
rate at which the scope is able to acquire and update the display of a waveform.

Faster update rates improve the probability that infrequent events, such as glitches, are captured.
Agilent's InfiniiVision 7000 Series oscilloscopes, for example, have an update rate of up to 
100 k waveforms/s.

Be careful when comparing update rates. Vendors quote the best possible update rate their
oscilloscopes can achieve. However, special acquisition modes are often required to obtain these
banner specifications.

These special modes can severely limit the performance of an oscilloscope in areas such as memory
depth, sample rate, and waveform reconstruction.


Point Six: Triggering Capabilities

Edge triggering is widely use by general-purpose oscilloscope users. However, it may be useful to
have additional triggering power in some applications.

For serial designers, some oscilloscopes are equipped with serial triggering protocols, meeting
standards such as SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface), CAN (Controller Area Network), USB
(Universal Serial Bus), I
2
C (Inter-Integrated Circuit, pronounced I-squared-C), FlexRay, or LIN
(Local Interconnect Network). Advanced triggering options can save a significant amount of time
in day-to-day debugging.

What if you need to capture an infrequent event? Glitch triggering permits you to trigger on a
positive-going or negative-going glitch, or on a pulse greater than, or less than, a specified width.
Additionally, many scopes provide triggering capability for TV, HDTV, and video applications.

Agilent's 90000A Series oscilloscopes will eventually have the industry's only 3-level sequence
trigger, in the company's InfiniiScan Plus system. This is a hardware/software trigger system.

Overall, it's important to anticipate the kind of events you will need to trigger on and then make
sure your oscilloscope has these triggering capabilities.


Point Seven: Probing Capabilities

The probe you choose is important because system bandwidth – the bandwidth of the
oscilloscope/probe combination – is limited by the lesser of the two bandwidths. Consider, for
example, a 1-GHz oscilloscope coupled with a 500-MHz passive probe. With this combination, you
will not be able to obtain the full bandwidth of the 1-GHz oscilloscope, but will instead be limited
to the 500-MHz allowed by the probe.

Additionally, every time you connect a probe, the probe becomes part of the circuit under test. The
probe tip is basically a short transmission line that can load your DUT (device under test).

Consider active probes. They not only provide greater bandwidths than passive probes, but can also
mitigate some of the transmission-line effects. Some Agilent Technologies probes minimize signal
loading, and resulting signal distortion, by incorporating resistive damped tips. These damped
accessories prevent resonant LC tank-circuit impedance from going too low – thus preventing
ringing and signal distortion caused by loading a signal.

You also want to ensure your probe is capable of full bandwidth even when you're using probe
head accessories. Agilent InfiniiMax probes use a single amplifier. They let you connect a variety
of differential or single-ended probe heads, while still obtaining full system bandwidth.

Point Eight: Connectivity Capabilities

Many digitizing oscilloscopes now have numerous connectivity capabilities. These can include
IEEE-488/GPIB, RS-232, LAN, and USB 2.0 interfaces. If you transfer oscilloscope data often to
your PC, it will be important for your chosen scope to have at least one of these connectivity
options. A built-in DVD-RW or CD-RW drive can also help in transferring data.

Some oscilloscopes, such as the InfiniiVision 7000,  let you export waveform data as an .alb file.
You can then import this file into a logic analyzer application loaded on your PC. This can be very
useful if you're working in a group that is geographically dispersed, as you can send waveforms
captured on your oscilloscope to fellow team members and they can analyze the signals on their
PCs.

Determining, ahead of time, your connectivity options, can drastically reduce the amount of time
you spend transferring and storing data.


Point Nine: Application Software

Automatic measurements, built-in analysis capability, and additional application software can save
time and make your job easier. Math functions, measurement statistics, and FFT (fast Fourier
transform) capabilities are available on most oscilloscopes.

For the power-user interested in waveform analysis, some manufacturers offer software packages
that enable you to customize complex measurements or math functions, and do post-processing
directly from the oscilloscope's user interface. 

Application software can let you make measurements that would otherwise be very difficult.
Agilent's InfiniiScan software, for example, is an identification package that can identify signal
integrity problems by scanning through thousands of waveforms and then isolating anomalies in a
signal.

It's important to investigate what additional software is available, so you don't find yourself needing
a function or measurement that your oscilloscope's software can't handle.


Point Ten: Ease of Use

Think through the previous nine considerations. They can help you narrow the field to a limited
number of oscilloscopes that meet your selection criteria.

Then try them out and perform a side-by-side comparison. If you can, borrow the oscilloscopes for
a few days so you have time to thoroughly evaluate them. This will give you the opportunity to
analyze each oscilloscope's ease of use.

When evaluating ease of use, there are several questions you should ask. Are there dedicated knobs
for often-used adjustments such as vertical sensitivity, timebase speed, trace position, or trigger
level? How many buttons do you need to push to go from one operation to the next? Can you
operate the oscilloscope intuitively while concentrating on your circuit under test? Finding an
oscilloscope that is easy to use can save you a great deal of frustration later.


About the Author

Robert Lashlee joined Agilent Technologies in 2007 as a Learning Products Engineer working on
high-performance oscilloscopes and probes.  Robert obtained his BS in physics from the University
of Central Missouri and his MS in physics from the University of Georgia’s  Center for
Simulational Physics under the direction of Dr David P Landau. His pastimes include fishing and
reading.

Silicon-chip-based ultrafast optical oscilloscope

With the realization of faster telecommunication data rates and an expanding interest in ultrafast chemical and physical phenomena, it has become important to develop techniques that enable simple measurements of optical waveforms with subpicosecond resolution. State-of-the-art oscilloscopes with high-speed photodetectors provide single-shot waveform measurement with 30-ps resolution. Although multiple-shot sampling techniques can achieve few-picosecond resolution, single-shot measurements are necessary to analyse events that are rapidly varying in time, asynchronous, or may occur only once. Further improvements in single-shot resolution are challenging, owing to microelectronic bandwidth limitations. To overcome these limitations, researchers have looked towards all-optical techniques because of the large processing bandwidths that photonics allow. This has generated an explosion of interest in the integration of photonics on standard electronics platforms, which has spawned the field of silicon photonics and promises to enable the next generation of computer processing units and advances in high-bandwidth communications. For the success of silicon photonics in these areas, on-chip optical signal-processing for optical performance monitoring will prove critical. Beyond next-generation communications, silicon-compatible ultrafast metrology would be of great utility to many fundamental research fields, as evident from the scientific impact that ultrafast measurement techniques continue to make. Here, using time-to-frequency conversion via the nonlinear process of four-wave mixing on a silicon chip, we demonstrate a waveform measurement technology within a silicon-photonic platform. We measure optical waveforms with 220-fs resolution over lengths greater than 100ps, which represent the largest record-length-to-resolution ratio (>450) of any single-shot-capable picosecond waveform measurement technique. Our implementation allows for single-shot measurements and uses only highly developed electronic and optical materials of complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS)-compatible silicon-on-insulator technology and single-mode optical fibre. The mature silicon-on-insulator platform and the ability to integrate electronics with these CMOS-compatible photonics offer great promise to extend this technology into commonplace bench-top and chip-scale instruments.

Oscilloscopes

Oscilloscopes

The ability to capture and analyse complex, high-speed electronic signals makes the oscilloscope one of the most useful and powerful tools in an engineer's laboratory, reports The Scott Partnership.
Oscilloscopes are used to measure and visualize how electrical signals evolve over time, and are considered by most engineers and physicists to be an invaluable tool in the laboratory. In their most common application, two probes are used to measure the electrical potential difference at a given point in an electronic circuit or device.

 

The Fifth Harmonic: Tradeoffs Between Sampling and Real-Time Oscilloscopes

Choosing the right oscilloscope for your application is a complicated process, especially in today’s economy when budgets are tight and purchases must be exact. There are multiple types of oscilloscopes, including real-time (RT) and equivalent-time (ET) oscilloscopes. Within each type of scope, many different specifications must be considered. One of the most important specifications is bandwidth—if there’s not enough bandwidth to at least satisfy Nyquist, the signal will experience significant aliasing.
When choosing which bandwidth to purchase, there are no simple answers. Vendors will argue a “fifth harmonic” rule of thumb. The vendor will say that the fifth harmonic is all you need to determine how much bandwidth you need. However, it’s important to understand under typical conditions at the receiver that even if the oscilloscope has enough bandwidth to theoretically capture the fifth harmonic, it’s possible the oscilloscope won’t capture any fifth-harmonic content at all.
Given the economy of today, avoid purchasing an oscilloscope to capture the fifth harmonic based on a rule of thumb, considering that with its extra price it can only capture to the third harmonic. You could purchase a lower bandwidth oscilloscope that captures the same harmonic content for less money. That’s why it is necessary to know exactly how much bandwidth is truly needed and what features are required by a designer.
Finally, it’s important to understand the benefits and disadvantages of different oscilloscope types, including RT and ET oscilloscopes. Once you understand all of these specifications (including noise floor, dynamic range, and bandwidth) and how they affect measurements, you can then be sure you’re purchasing the correct oscilloscope for your application and needs.
THE IMPORTANCE OF NOISE FLOOR
Data rates continue to climb—what was once state of the art a few years ago is now considered old technology. Data rates reaching 5 Gbits/s are becoming common. As a result, there’s no longer time to transition a bit from 0 to 1 with a 2-V signal. A number of serial technologies have peak-to-peak voltages of 800 mV or less, meaning their eyes are shrinking rapidly.
Every oscilloscope has an intrinsic noise floor. The higher the volt per division setting, the higher the oscilloscope noise floor. An 800-mV peak-to-peak signal will require a voltage per division setting of at least 100 mV/div to see the necessary details of the signal (Fig. 1).
If the intrinsic oscilloscope noise at 100 mV/div is 50 mV, then 8% of the signal is now oscilloscope noise. Even worse, if the noise floor is 100 mV, 13% of the signal is oscilloscope noise. Assuming that a signal’s eye is shrinking, 13% extra noise can cause an open eye to appear closed. Thus, designers may be tempted to overdesign. Typically, ET oscilloscopes have a lower noise floor than RT oscilloscopes. However, with proper research, you can find RT oscilloscopes with noise floors that are less than 5% of the signal discussed above.
DYNAMIC RANGE AND SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO
An important impact of a high noise floor is that it will affect an oscilloscope’s dynamic range and the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). An oscilloscope’s SNR can be defined as the ratio of the largest signal level that an oscilloscope can handle to the smallest signal it can still distinguish between its noise floor, since a digital signal’s dynamic range and SNR can be used virtually interchangeably.
Dynamic range is important to understand, because it directly affects the amount of frequency content an oscilloscope can capture (this will be discussed in detail in the next section). Typically, an oscilloscope’s dynamic range, which is the difference between the largest spur and the scope’s noise floor, is defined in dB.
An oscilloscope’s dynamic range can also be determined by looking at an FFT of a sine-wave input into a scope. To make this measurement, a memory depth of less than 1000 points must be applied to the FFT of the oscilloscope. At memory depths greater than 1000 points, the scope will show higher dynamic range, since it’s now mimicking averaging mode or high-resolution mode (which are ways to increase the dynamic range).
One rule of thumb for calculating an oscilloscope’s dynamic range is its effective bits. The effective bits are directly tied to the bits with the oscilloscope’s ADC. These vary by the bandwidth of the oscilloscope—the higher the bandwidth of the scope, the lower the effective bits and the dynamic range. Ideally, RT oscilloscopes would have a dynamic range of around 50 dB (assuming 8 bits). This is calculated by finding the SNR of the oscilloscope.
SNR = 6.02N + 1.76 (where N is the effective bits)
ET oscilloscopes (typically 12 to 14 bits) could have a dynamic range as large as 85 dB. Typically, though, RT scopes will feature a dynamic range between 35 and 45 dB, while ET scope dynamic range falls between 50 and 70 dB.
A number of other factors can affect the dynamic range of an oscilloscope. Scope companies will boost their bandwidth with DSP to achieve higher bandwidths. If an oscilloscope is boosting the top bandwidth by greater than 20% from their highest analog bandwidth, it will significantly impact dynamic range at the greater bandwidth. While the increase will provide the oscilloscope more bandwidth, the dynamic range could shrink by as much as 10 dB. This can be seen with the oscilloscope’s FFT. An oscilloscope’s dynamic range can also be affected by interleaving an ADC. If the vendor has a number of interleaving errors in its ADC, it will affect the dynamic range.
FREQUENCY CONTENT
Fourier synthesis states that all complex signals in their simplest forms can be constructed by adding sine waves of different frequencies and phases together. These frequencies can be seen in the frequency domain by plotting frequency against amplitude. The amount of sine waves that’s captured is known as the frequency content of a signal.
When looking at the frequency content of a 100-MHz square wave, there are multiple spurs known as harmonics and each is well defined. Also, each harmonic has a different amplitude (the first being the largest and gradually getting smaller). When these sine waves are added back together, we see the square wave. This means that the more harmonics (harmonic content) an oscilloscope is able to capture, the more accurately a signal can be displayed when reconstructed in the time domain.

How to Prevent a Common Childhood Foot Problem

How to Prevent a Common Childhood Foot Problem

How to Prevent a Common Childhood Foot Problem

(NewsUSA)- Parents can prevent one of the most common childhood foot problems by following some simple recommendations.
Foot and ankle surgeons say ingrown toenails are a condition they treat frequently in children. Surgeons say many kids hide their ingrown toenails from their parents, even though the condition can cause significant pain. The problem is that ingrown toenails often break the skin. That allows bacteria to enter and cause an infection.
Tight shoes, tight socks and incorrect toenail trimming cause most pediatric ingrown toenails, according to the American College of Foot and Ankle Surgeons (ACFAS). In other cases, children may inherit the tendency for nails to curve.
FootPhysicians.com provides parents these recommendations:
- Make sure children's shoes fit. Shoe width is more important than length. Make sure that the widest part of the shoe matches the widest part of your child's foot.
- Teach children how to trim their toenails properly. Trim toenails in a fairly straight line. Don't cut them too short.
- Never try to dig out an ingrown toenail or cut it off. These dangerous "bathroom surgeries" carry a high risk for infection.
- Have a qualified doctor treat a child's ingrown toenail. A minor surgical procedure can eliminate the pain and often prevent the condition from coming back.
A foot and ankle surgeon may prescribe antibiotics if there's an infection.
One thing parents can do to reduce their child's pain is to soak the affected foot in room-temperature water. Then gently massage the side of the nail fold.
For more information on ingrown toenails in children, visit FootPhysicians.com.

Women's Health: Make Pap Screening a Priority in 2009

Women's Health: Make Pap Screening a Priority in 2009

Women's Health
Make Pap Screening a Priority in 2009

Cervical cancer is a disease that affects too many women each year. In 2008, an estimated 11,000 new cases of cervical cancer were diagnosed, and the disease caused nearly 4,000 deaths in the US.
Fortunately, women have a highly effective tool in detecting cervical cancer at its earliest and most treatable stages-the Pap test. The beginning of the year is a great time to schedule an appointment to have this important screening.
The cervix is the lower, narrow end of the uterus. It is covered by a thin layer of cells that are continually growing and being replaced. Certain factors, such as an infection with human papillomavirus (HPV), may cause cervical cells to begin to grow abnormally. These abnormal cells often go away without treatment, but in some women they will continue to grow and eventually turn into cancer. Regular Pap screenings can help your ob-gyn monitor changes in cervical cells that may need treatment.
Pap screening is generally quick and painless. Your ob-gyn will collect a sample of cervical cells that will be sent to a lab for examination. ACOG recommends that women have their first Pap test within three years of sexual activity or by the age of 21, then annually until age 30. Women older than 30 who have had three normal tests in a row can get a Pap test every two to three years but should still see their doctor annually for other routine screenings and preventive care.
In addition to Pap testing, women 30 and older can also have an HPV test, which screens for the presence of cancer-causing HPV strains. When taken together, these tests increase the odds of finding abnormal cell changes. HPV testing is not advised for women under 30 because it may lead to unnecessary treatment of abnormal cells that would likely resolve if left alone.
If your test comes back with abnormal results, your doctor may suggest a follow-up HPV test or a repeat Pap test to be sure the cells don't change. Some women may need a procedure called a colposcopy, which uses a magnifying tool to view and take a small sample of abnormal cells for examination.
Precancerous cells that are found can be removed through minor surgical techniques, such as electrosurgical excision (LEEP), or freezing. These treatments may be performed in your doctor's office or in an outpatient surgical clinic. You also may be given medication to ease discomfort. After treatment, your doctor will suggest frequent check-ups and Pap tests. Continue to see your doctor regularly and be sure to ask questions if you have any concerns.
For more information, the ACOG Patient Education Pamphlet "The Pap Test" is available in English and Spanish at www.acog.org/publications/
patient_education

Women's Health: Keep Your Numbers in Check for Heart Health

Women's Health: Keep Your Numbers in Check for Heart Health

Women's Health
Keep Your Numbers in Check for Heart Health
by Douglas H. Kirkpatrick, MD
President, The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists

Heart disease is the No. 1 killer of American women. A shocking 38 million women are living with heart disease in the US today. Do you know your risk of developing heart disease?
Health indicator numbers, such as body mass index (BMI), waist circumference, blood pressure, and blood cholesterol and sugar levels can help you determine your personal risk for developing heart disease. Once you know you personal numbers, you can work with your doctor to improve those in dangerous ranges and maintain the healthy ones.
BMI measures body fat in relation to height and weight. A BMI lower than 25 is within normal range and is associated with a lower risk of heart disease. Women with BMIs in the overweight (25-29.9) or obese (30 or greater) range can significantly reduce heart disease risk by losing about 10% of their total body weight.
Abdominal fat around the waistline may signal a higher likelihood of developing heart disease, diabetes, or stroke. To find out your waist circumference, place a measuring tape snuggly around your waist and note the number. Women with a waist measurement of 35 inches or more are at increased risk.
Your body naturally makes all the cholesterol you need. However, genetics and lifestyle factors-such as consuming a diet high in animal fats-may cause excess cholesterol to build up in your arteries and set the stage for a heart attack or stroke.
Your doctor can measure your total cholesterol, LDL ("bad" cholesterol), HDL ("good" cholesterol), and triglyceride levels. Ideally, a woman's total cholesterol should be less than 200 mg/dL, LDL less than 100 mg/dL, HDL 60 mg/dL or greater, and triglycerides less than 150 mg/dL. ACOG recommends that women be screened for high cholesterol every five years, beginning at age 45. Women with preexisting risk factors for cardiovascular disease should begin screening earlier.
High blood pressure increases the heart's workload, puts added strain on the blood vessels, and raises the risk of a heart attack, heart failure, stroke, or kidney problems. Have your blood pressure checked annually or more often if it's elevated. Aim to keep your blood pressure lower than 120/80 mm Hg.
Elevated blood sugar may signal that you are at risk for developing-or already have-diabetes. Diabetic women have a three to seven times higher risk of heart disease than nondiabetic women. ACOG recommends that women 45 and older have a fasting blood glucose test (taken after fasting for at least eight hours) every three years. Fasting blood sugar levels below 100 mg/dL are considered normal. Healthy lifestyle habits can also help improve your numbers. Consume a diet high in fiber and low in saturated fats, cholesterol, and refined carbohydrates. Get 30 to 90 minutes of exercise on most days of the week and quit smoking. Your doctor may also prescribe medication to lower your risk.

The Therapist Is In...Digital Disorders

The Therapist Is In...Digital Disorders

The Therapist Is In...
Digital Disorders
by Shannon Murphy, MPT

We live in rapidly changing world in which technology often competes with biology. People of all ages and backgrounds are clicking away on electronic devices that become smaller and sleeker every year ... and yet our bodies do not change in dimension. This issue of "human factors" is one that engineers try to address through design when developing cars, computers, phones, etc, but our society values convenience and fuels the demand for miniature gadgets. And there is little debate about the utility that mobile devices have added to our lives -- whether it be managing a schedule, using the internet, maintaining a database of music, or sending quick messages via text. But all this electronic interaction can lead to a number of problems in the body-particularly the thumbs, wrists, forearms, shoulders and neck.
"Blackberry Thumb"
The problem of thumb pain from excessive typing on mobile/mini keyboards is actually known as "Blackberry Thumb", after the PDA (personal digital assistant) that first made the condition famous. Videogame enthusiasts have long been susceptible to a similar condition known more generically as "gamer's thumb", so the phenomenon is not truly "new". Both fall into the category of repetitive-motion injuries, which refers overusing the body's tissues to repeatedly perform some task.
Most people work type on mobile devices with their thumbs (in positions that are unnatural for the hand and wrist) and typically in a a forward-head/looking-down posture. When the intention of taking 5 minutes to check your e-mail turns into an hour browsing the web, chatting with friends, or playing games, the effect of those unnatural positions adds up. As a result, it is not uncommon to feel aches and pains throughout the thumb region, as well other parts of the arm and neck.
The body is designed to move, and prolonged static postures of any kind tend to deprive the muscles of bloodflow...which, in turn, leads to many chemical processes involved in tissue breakdown, inflammation, spasm and pain.
Signs of Overuse
If you spend a lot of time using mobile devices, be aware of signs that suggest overuse:
* Early stage -- general aches and pains in the thumb, wrist, elbow, shoulder or neck that develop after long periods of using your mobile device, and get better with rest
* Later stage - pain and tightness in all the same areas that tend to persist after you've stopped using the device or come on more quickly than before
If left untreated, pain will typically become more constant and start to affect other types of activities like turning keys, opening jars, driving, etc. The thumb is particularly vulnerable because it is such a mobile joint...which is essential for hand function, but not ideal for repetitive motion.
An ounce of prevention ...
It is always better to prevent an injury than to struggle with treating one! A few options to help limit the chance of developing an overuse syndrome.
* Take frequent breaks - rest after every 5 minutes of continuous use. Look up for 20-30 seconds to give your neck a break
* Prop your arms if able (on a purse, bookbag, desk), to keep the device higher and decrease the amount of stress on the neck
* Write fewer and shorter messages! Save the novels for a real computer (and take breaks there, too!)
* Keep your wrists straight
* Occasionally type with your fingers to give the thumbs a break
* Consider using a portable ergonomic keyboard for your PDA, especially if you travel a lot and are typing consistently.
As always, once a problem has developed, get it addressed promptly. A mix of rest, ice, selective heat, bracing, exercise, and activity modification can help reverse symptoms and prevent further problems. Consult your physical therapist, physician, or other qualified healthcare professional if you think you might have a digitally-induced disorder!

This series of columns are by Shannon Murphy, MPT, Owner/Director of BodySense PT. 9 Saint Paul St, 3rd Floor, Boonsboro, MD 21713. 301-432-8585 phone, 301-432-1987 fax, smurphy@bodysensept.com.

Is your migraine on the rebound?

Is your migraine on the rebound?

Is your migraine on the rebound?

(NewsUSA) - When you feel that throbbing pain on one side of your face, you reach for your migraine medication. After all, no one wants to waste a day cowering in pain. But if you're experiencing migraine more often or your headaches are getting steadily worse, your pain relief pills could be to blame.
Taking too many pain medications too often -- as little as three times a week or 10 times a month -- can put your migraines in a rebound cycle. Your body becomes accustomed to the pain medication being in your system, so when it wears off, you start to get another headache -- prompting you to take more medication. Any painkiller can cause rebound headaches, though doctors think that drugs containing caffeine, aspirin and acetaminophen, and ergotamines and triptans carry the most risk.
How can you tell if you're suffering from rebound headaches? Most patients with rebound migraines experience low-grade headaches almost continuously. Many wake up with their head already hurting. Some find that their headaches get worse within a few hours of taking medication.
If you're experiencing frequent migraines while taking pain medication, your best option is to go cold turkey -- stop taking painkillers, and you will break the rebound cycle. Of course, giving up pain medication makes many patients nervous. Migraines are excruciating, and facing them without medication can seem like a terrifying prospect.
However, some all-natural remedies can provide relief without creating the rebound cycle caused by over-the-counter and prescription medications. Lipigesic-M (www.lipigesic.com), a migraine pain reliever, uses a unique sublingual delivery method to send its medicinal ingredients into the bloodstream quickly for fast relief. The individually packaged dosages contain migraine-fighting ingredients, including feverfew and ginger. Best of all, none of the ingredients are associated with rebound headaches, so you can relieve your migraine pain without worrying about making your headaches worse.
For more information, visit www.lipigesic.com.

Optimize your body's natural defenses

Optimize your body's natural defenses

Optimize your body's natural defenses

(NAPS)-Eating a healthy diet is on the top of the list to achieve overall well-being. One of the easiest and tastiest ways to eat more healthfully to optimize your body's natural defenses is to increase your consumption of fruits and vegetables.
Over the past 30 years or so, researchers have developed a solid base of science to back up what generations of mothers preached-eat your fruits and vegetables. Fruits and vegetables are low fat, low calorie, high fiber, and high in vitamins, minerals and other nutrients. The goal is to get five or more servings of fruits and vegetables each day.
But if you're like 75 percent of Americans who have a hard time getting the recommended amount of fruits and vegetables in your diet each day, according to government studies, here are some ideas to help you:
Improving Your Diet
* Juice it up. Fruit and vegetable juices generally have the vitamins, minerals and other nutrients found in the produce itself and can be easier to consume. Just be sure to drink 100 percent juice without the added sugar.
MonaVie (M)mu-n(tm) provides a body-beneficial blend of 19 fruits and Wellmune, which has been clinically shown to strengthen the body's immune defenses.
Formulated with AáaVie(tm)-the purest, most potent form of aáai available-this scientifically advanced juice combats cellular oxidation while helping protect your body year-round. (M)mu-n is fortified with beneficial fiber and key vitamins A, C and E, providing essential nutrients to support and sustain your overall health.
It also features a low score of 44 on the Glycemic Index (GI), which measures how the foods you eat impact your blood sugar levels.
Just like wearing a seat belt or brushing your teeth protects your body, drinking as little as 4 ounces of MonaVie juice daily helps support your health.
* Include a rainbow of produce in your diet. Variety is as important as quantity. No single fruit or vegetable provides all the nutrients you need to be healthy. The key lies in the variety of different vegetables and fruits that you eat.
* Get some every meal, every day. By making sure to have fruits and vegetables at every meal throughout the day, you'll easily reach your goals. If that's too difficult, add at least one extra serving each day.
* Make it a meal-combine juice like MonaVie (M)mu-n with yogurt, some protein powder and ice for a meal in a glass when you're on the run and can't take time to eat a meal.
* Make sure to drink vegetable or fruit juices before and after exercising.
Elite athletes, such as marathon runners, place a significant amount of physical stress on their bodies, which can tax their health. Similar to other burdens on the body, exercise stress can compromise your immune system. In a four-week study published in the "Journal of Sports Science and Medicine" examining the effects of Wellmune in marathon athletes, participants who took the supplement reported an improvement in their feelings of well-being and in the maintenance of their overall health.
Other easy ways to improve your diet include:
* Eat less red meat and more fish and poultry. Replacing one serving of beef, pork or lamb with one of chicken or turkey would lower coronary heart disease risk 19 percent, reports Adam M. Bernstein, M.D., ScD, of Harvard School of Public Health, and colleagues. Replacing them with a serving of fish could cut it by 24 percent.
* Eat more nuts, which are rich sources of healthful unsaturated fats including monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats. Studies show that consuming nuts improved total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol and the ratio of "bad" LDL to "good" HDL.
Learn More
You can learn more about healthful fruit drinks at www. mmun.com, www.monavie.com/ Web/US/en/monavie_mmun.dhtml and (866) 217-8455.

Adding cherries to your dog's diet can help hips

Adding cherries to your dog's diet can help hips

Adding cherries to your dog's diet can help hips

(NAPS)-Good news for dogs and their people. Long walks may soon be more comfortable for both-thanks to a surprising fruit.
Research at Michigan State University's Bioactive Natural Products and Phytoceuticals Laboratory found tart cherries are not only loaded with antioxidants, but they may help avoid discomfort by supporting the body's normal inflammatory response associated with daily exercise and activity.
These findings led to the development of new, all-natural, functional soft chews and baked treats for the active canine.
Overby Farm worked closely with university experts and practicing veterinarians to create Hip Bones-The Original Cherry Dog Treat, Hip Bones, Jr., and two soft chewable products: Hip Flex and Hip Flex Feline. They feature whole tart cherries, tart cherry concentrate, ground flaxseed, ginger, cinnamon, glucosamine and calcium in all-natural recipes supporting healthy hips, bones and joints.
For more information and to request a free sample or to order products, visit www.overbyfarm. com or call 888-628-8783.

Don't Let the Economy Hinder Your Emotional Health

Don't Let the Economy Hinder Your Emotional Health

Don't Let the Economy Hinder Your Emotional Health

(NewsUSA): As the tough economy puts pressure on Americans, many might find themselves wrestling with new emotional issues. For example, many workers, whether unemployed, worried over their job or struggling to make ends meet, will find themselves suffering from depression.
Depression can be caused by events or be associated with part of a larger illness. Symptoms can include chronic fatigue, anxiety, a loss of interest in regular activities, perpetual feelings of sadness and worthlessness, an inability to concentrate, changes in eating or sleeping habits, and a preoccupation with death. Anyone who experiences symptoms of depression should seek out a medical professional to discuss their symptoms and possible treatment options.
In relationships, when one partner experiences depression, the relationship can suffer. A depressed spouse may feel too tired and overwhelmed to carry out regular activities, ranging from household duties to dinner dates. Intimacy can decrease as well. Depression can lower sex drive, as can SSRIs, a class of anti-depressant drugs that include Zoloft, Prozac, Celexa and Paxil.
Depression does not make intimacy any less important to a healthy relationship. The emotionally healthy partner can feel neglected, while a lack of sex can increase the depressed spouse's feelings of isolation and alienation.
Depression can make couples find new ways to create intimacy. For example, some couples will use all-natural sex enhancement products, like Magic Power Coffee (www.magicpowercoffee.com). The beverage contains herbs proven to increase desire in both men and women. Other couples find that scheduling date nights or experimenting in bed leads to greater satisfaction for both partners.
Sometimes, switching to another anti-depressant or changing a dosage can help ease sexual side effects. If patients experience sexual side effects during treatment for their depression, they should discuss treatment options with their doctors.

Economy Sends Stress Levels Sky-High

Economy Sends Stress Levels Sky-High

Economy Sends Stress Levels Sky-High

(NewsUSA): As the job market becomes increasingly competitive, on-the-job stress levels reach all-time highs. In fact, work-related stress plagues 80 percent of American workers.
Bullying, unsupportive colleagues and managers, interruptions, pressure and lack of direction can all contribute to workplace stress. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, early warning signs of too much stress at work include headaches, sleep disturbances, difficulty concentrating, short temper, upset stomach, job dissatisfaction and low morale.
Some severely stressed workers leave their jobs or their fields to find more balance in their life. But as the tough economy makes finding jobs more difficult, many Americans feel reluctant to jeopardize steady incomes. At the same time, workers are reluctant to reveal their stress on the job, lest they find themselves unemployed.
Here are three tips for Americans looking to find ways to manage their job-related stress levels:
1) Change your venue. Location, location, location is everything when it comes to reducing stress in your office. From the color of your walls, to the position of your desk, your mood will increase as your space gets more tranquil. Also, plants breathe life into stagnate work environments.
2) Increase your Pro Bono work. The average American works over 40 hours a week and gets less than seven hours of sleep on the weekdays. Weekends are a good time to change your routine. If you can't relax on the weekend, don't power through it. Instead, put your energy into helping a charity or giving back to your community. By doing this, you will alleviate stress and find fulfillment in another area besides your career.
3) Balance the scales. If you start your day with a cigarette, a double-shot coffee and a dose of your child's ADD medicine, you need to balance that with some calming foods and supplements as well. Some natural, whole-food based supplements can relieve stress and anxiety without causing drowsiness. For example, one product, Relaxity, contains gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and adaptogenic herbs that produce a relaxed state without inspiring yawns.
Double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical studies prove that GABA, used in Relaxity, can diminish stress, worry and anxiety, and that it might also allow for better focus and concentration.
Relaxity is available nationwide in healthfood stores, like Whole Foods, Wild Oats and online. For a free online stress test, visit www.relaxity.net.

Stress-Busting Tips For Caregivers

Stress-Busting Tips For Caregivers

Stress-Busting Tips For Caregivers

(NewsUSA) - Few things prove more stressful than caring for a loved one with cancer. While doctors handle the cancer treatment, caregivers often manage their patients' everyday needs -- transportation, food, recreation, medications and visits with friends. At the same time, caregivers must deal with feelings of helplessness and frustration as they watch their loved ones fight battles in which they cannot help. Many feel guilty if they focus any attention on themselves.
According to the Family Caregiver Alliance, studies have consistently reported higher levels of depressive symptoms and mental health problems among caregivers than among their noncaregiving peers.
But caregivers can learn to manage their stress."Talking with a trusted friend or counselor can help caregivers reduce stress, feel less helpless and understand how to respond to their loved ones," says Cancer Treatment Centers of America (CTCA) Mind-Body Medicine national director Dr. Katherine Puckett.
Many of the same methods that help caregivers can apply to anyone facing a stressful situation. Puckett offers the following tips:
* Find a treatment center that will help. Puckett and her mind-body medicine team work closely with both patients and caregivers to listen and provide support. CTCA also helps ease stress by coordinating appointments, providing transportation and scheduling travel arrangements and hotel accommodations.
* Ask for and accept help. If another family member is willing to help out, let them ease your burden. Depending on the source of your stress, you should also seek out additional community resources. For example, cancer caregivers can find support groups for both themselves and patients.
* Know your limits. Determine what you can and can't handle, based on your responsibilities to your family and professional life. If adding another obligation is too much, either say, "No" or find someone with whom to split duties.
* Take care of yourself. Sufficient sleep will help you manage challenges more easily. Eat a healthy diet with plenty of fruits, vegetables, whole grains and lean proteins. Start exercising -- regular activity can help reduce irritability, fatigue and overall stress levels.
* Make time for yourself. Relaxing or doing something that you enjoy -- even for a few minutes -- can go a long way towards lifting your mood. Puckett recommends that caregivers set aside at least five minutes a day to meditate or simply be still and relax.
For more information, visit www.cancercenter.com.

Brushing up on tooth decay

Brushing up on tooth decay

Brushing up on tooth decay

(NewsUSA) - You teach your kids to brush their teeth, yet every trip to the dentist could reveal another cavity. But don't fret. You're not doing anything wrong -- children can still develop dental cavities, or areas where harmful bacteria damage hard tooth structure, in spite of every precaution. In fact, tooth decay remains the most common chronic condition in children and adolescents.
"Kids have very special oral care needs, and are much more likely than adults to form cavities," says Dr. Jeffrey Hillman, D.M.D., Ph.D., chief scientific officer of Oragenics, Inc. For one thing, children tend to like sugary foods, which make them more likely to develop cavities. But sugar does not cause cavities directly -- sugar feeds the bad bacteria that cause tooth decay.
Brushing can help prevent tooth decay by removing plaque, or buildup of bad bacteria, but it's not a perfect technique. For one thing, it only takes 20 minutes after eating to develop plaque, and few children brush and floss immediately after eating. Also, brushing can't remove plaque from between teeth. To fight plaque between teeth, parents should floss their children's teeth at least once a day until about age 10, when children can start flossing for themselves.
In addition to daily brushing and flossing, oral care probiotics, or "good" bacteria, may help. Dr. Hillman recommends giving children an oral care probiotic supplement, such as EvoraKids (www.myevorakids.com). He explains that oral care probiotics work by flooding the mouth with good bacteria, which adhere to tooth surfaces, including crevices, pits and fissures in the chewing surfaces, leaving less room for bad bacteria to grow. "The probiotics effectively compete with certain harmful bacteria for both nutrients and space on teeth surfaces, reaching where brushing and flossing can't," says Dr. Hillman.
Despite all of your best efforts at home, a trip to the dentist can still do wonders. Regularly scheduled dentist checkups are critical to any healthy mouth. The American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry recommends that parents take their children to the dentist by age one.

Seeking solutions for plastic medical waste

Seeking solutions for plastic medical waste

Seeking solutions for plastic medical waste

(NewsUSA) - Recycling efforts tend to center around plastic water bottles and milk jugs, but few people think about the plastics used in hospitals. IV bags, tubing and other types of medical products all contain plastic. And every time a patient enters a medical facility anywhere in the world, they generate waste.
The medical waste produced by hospitals, laboratories, research centers, animal testing laboratories, mortuaries and nursing homes can pile up quickly. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), high-income countries, such as the U.S., produce about 13 pounds of medical waste per person per year.
Medical facilities use several methods to dispose of plastic medical waste. Some use incineration, which releases toxins into the atmosphere. Others use autoclaving, or a pressurized steam-cleaning, to disinfect plastics before shredding them. But most medical waste ends up in landfills.
One company, JBI, Inc., has found a better solution -- recycling plastic medical waste into fuel. Its CEO, John Bordynuik, was going through old research archives when he found information about a unique catalyst that can efficiently break down plastic molecules into an oil similar to biofuel.
This technology, now called Plastic 2 Oil (P2O), can extract about one liter of fuel from every kilogram of raw plastics.
JBI Inc., which trades on the OTC under the stock symbol JBII, is buying a U.S. air filtration and custom air ventilation company that has worked with the U.S. Army Corp of Engineers, as well as numerous federal agencies and organizations within the health care industry. This new acquisition will allow JBI, Inc. to recycle medical waste plastic through its P2O process.
The company is looking for facilities that can be converted into P2O factories. Those who allow P2O factories to run on their property will receive extra fuel from the P2O process.
For more information please, visit www.plastic2oil.com and www.jbiglobal.com.